Grammar Fundamentals
Syntax: The Architecture of Sentences
Syntax is the set of rules that governs how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. The most fundamental syntactic property of a language is its basic word order -- the default arrangement of subject (S), verb (V), and object (O). While every language allows some flexibility, most have a dominant order that is used in simple declarative sentences. Word order is one of the most immediately noticeable features of a language and has cascading effects on other aspects of grammar, such as where adjectives, adverbs, and relative clauses are placed. Choosing your conlang's word order is one of the most impactful decisions you will make.
Word Order Types
| Order | Frequency | Example Languages | Sample Sentence ('The cat chased the mouse') |
|---|---|---|---|
| SVO | Most common (~42%) | English, French, Mandarin, Swahili | The cat / chased / the mouse |
| SOV | Very common (~45%) | Japanese, Korean, Turkish, Hindi, Latin | The cat / the mouse / chased |
| VSO | Less common (~9%) | Irish, Arabic (classical), Welsh, Hawaiian | Chased / the cat / the mouse |
| VOS | Rare (~3%) | Malagasy, Fijian, Tzotzil | Chased / the mouse / the cat |
| OVS | Very rare (~1%) | Hixkaryana, Klingon | The mouse / chased / the cat |
| OSV | Extremely rare (<1%) | Warao, Nadeb | The mouse / the cat / chased |
Case Systems
A case system marks the grammatical role of nouns within a sentence using affixes, particles, or word changes. In a language with cases, you can often rearrange word order freely because the case markers tell you who is doing what. The most common case system distinguishes nominative (the subject of a sentence) and accusative (the direct object). Many languages add more cases: dative (indirect object or recipient), genitive (possession), instrumental (the tool or means), locative (location), and others. Finnish has 15 cases, Hungarian has 18, and Tsez has over 60. A case system is not required for your conlang -- many languages like English and Mandarin get by with minimal case marking and rely on word order instead. But adding cases gives you flexibility in word order and can be very expressive.
Agreement and Grammatical Relations
Agreement (also called concord) is when one word changes its form to match features of another word. In Spanish, adjectives agree with nouns in gender and number: 'gato blanco' (white cat, masculine singular) vs. 'gatas blancas' (white cats, feminine plural). Verbs often agree with their subjects in person and number: English 'I run' vs. 'she runs.' Some languages have verbs agree with their objects too, or with possessors. Agreement creates redundancy in a language, which makes it more robust against mishearing or ambiguity but also more complex for learners. You can choose how much agreement your conlang has -- from none at all (like Mandarin) to extensive agreement across multiple categories (like Swahili, where verbs agree with their subjects in noun class).
Grammar Fundamentals Quiz
1. What is the most common basic word order among the world's languages?
2. What is the purpose of a case system?
3. In grammatical agreement, what happens?
Exercise: Establish Your Grammar Framework
Define the core grammatical properties of your conlang. Choose a basic word order and explain why it suits your language's character. Decide whether your language will have a case system, and if so, which cases. Determine what kinds of agreement your language will use (noun-adjective, subject-verb, etc.). Then write five simple sentences in your conlang showing the word order in action, with a word-by-word gloss (a translation of each individual word or morpheme) and a free English translation.